The Evolution of a Discard Policy in Europe

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Hannah Armstrong, RJD Intern

When discussing matters of conserving the ocean and the resources therein, overfishing has continued to be a significant problem.  To compensate, those in charge of fisheries management often implement catch quotas, or ban fishing overall, most often in protected areas.  In Europe, however, where public awareness of ocean conservation has increased, another issue has become the leading topic of discussions in recent years: fisheries discards, and discard policies.

Discards are the portion of a fisherman’s catch that is not kept on board and landed, but instead thrown back into the ocean, usually dead or dying.  In the waters surrounding the European Union, this practice is currently legal, and typically happens as a result of other management measures such as minimum landing sizes, total allowable catches and quota limitations and by-catch restrictions (Borges).  But with European Union fisheries management shifting from focusing on single-species sustainability to maintaining and protecting the entire ecosystem (ecosystem-based fisheries management), understanding the effects of discarding unwanted species is critical (Borges).

discards

Discards are the portion of a fisherman’s catch that is not kept on board and landed, but instead thrown back into the ocean. (Image source: EUReferendum.com)

The European Commission, the “executive body of the European union with the mandate to propose future policies in fisheries management” (Borges), originally began regulating total allowable catches around the year 1980, followed by the first Common Fisheries Policy regulation, which aimed to restrict fishing effort by catch limits, however it never made any reference to discards.  It wasn’t until 1992 that discards were deliberately mentioned in the context of needing improved fishing practices and technology as a means of limiting discards.

By the end of 2004, with a new European Commissioner for Fisheries and Maritime Affairs, discards once again became a heated topic amongst European fisheries managers.  Then, in 2008, when video was released of a UK vessel dumping nearly five tons of commercial sized fish just outside waters where discarding is banned, there was a public outcry for a total ban on fisheries discards (Borges).  A review process for the Common Fisheries Policy began in 2009, which addressed issues such as over-exploitation of fish stocks, strategies and goals for ecosystem-based management, among other things.  Finally, following a 2010 campaign that focused primarily on the issue of discards, the public once again petitioned for more attention regarding this issue, eventually resulting in a discard summit to fully address the problem (Borges).

Looking to the future, there is a plan for the Common Fisheries Policy to include a discard ban for several species, “starting with pelagic species in 2014 and followed by demersal species to be fully implemented by 2016” (Borges).  Still, even with a discard ban, there remain questions as to whether it will prove to be effective fisheries management if it is not monitored and enforced, and if other conservation efforts are not implemented as well.  The evolution of the European Union’s discard policy certainly highlights the impact of public awareness and opinion as a means of informing policy discussion and implementation.

Reference:

Borges, L.  “The evolution of a discard policy in Europe.” Fish and Fisheries (2013)

The Zoo Debate: Educators or Entertainers?

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Evidence for the Positive Contributions of Zoos and Aquariums to Aichi Biodiversity Target 1

 By Emily Rose Nelson, RJD Intern

 The UN Strategic Plan for Biodiversity 2011-2020, adopted by the Convention on Biological Diversity in 2010, is a ten-year model aiming to protect biodiversity and the benefits it provides. The plan is essential in global efforts to halt and, optimistically, reverse the current loss of biodiversity. 20 target goals, known as the Aichi Biodiversity Targets, have been put in place with intent to increase value people put on biodiversity, maintain ecosystem services and support global action for a healthy planet. The first of these targets is as follows, “ by 2020, at the latest, people are aware of the values of biodiversity and the steps they can take to conserve and use it sustainably.” Achieving such an ambitious goal as this will not be possible without work from zoos and aquariums.

UN Biodiversity

The United Nations General Assembly has declared this the “Decade on Biodiversity.”

Annually zoos and aquariums around the world receive over 700 million visitors (Gusset and Dick, 2011) providing them with the potential to make a huge impact in achieving Aichi Target 1. A 2007 study found that 131 out of 136 zoo mission statements reference education and 118 out 136 specifically mention conservation (Patrick et al, 2007). However, many of these institutions market themselves for entertainment and weaken messages of environmental education.

Moss and collaborators (2014) set out to evaluate the educational impacts of zoos and aquariums. 5,661 visitors to 26 zoos in 19 different countries all over the world were given the same open-ended surveys before and after their visit. Participants were asked to list up to five things that came to mind when they thought about biodiversity and list two actions they could take to help save animal species. Content analysis was used to provide quantitative data from these responses.

Results of the study showed that understanding of biodiversity and knowledge of actions to help protect biodiversity both significantly increased over the course of zoo and aquarium visits, providing evidence that zoos and aquariums are largely serving their role as educators as well as entertainers. The outcome shown by Moss et. al calls attention to the importance of zoos and aquariums in achieving Aichi Target 1.

PrePost Visit Bar Graph

Both dependent variables, biodiversity understanding and knowledge of actions to protect biodiversity, show significant difference between surveys before and after visiting a zoo or aquarium.

However, an increase in knowledge regarding biodiversity is not necessarily an indicator of a related change in behavior to protect biodiversity. Zoos and aquariums face the challenging task of moving people to action. One way in which they are already doing this is providing people with a connection to nature. If one feels attached to something they are more likely to care about its conservation (Falk et al, 2007). Additionally, zoos and aquariums can play a part in pro-conservation action by advocating for policy changes that protect land and wildlife, targeting and providing alternatives to threatening social norms, and serving as a role model for their visitors and other institutions.

Works Cited:

 Falk, J. H., E. M. Reinhard, C. L. Vernon, K. Bronnenkant, N. L. Deans, and J. E. Heimlich. 2007. Why zoos and aquariums matter: assessing the impact of a visit to a zoo or aquarium. Association of Zoos & Aquariums, Silver Spring, MD.

Gusset, M., and G. Dick. 2011. The global reach of zoos and aquariums in visitor numbers and conservation expenditures. Zoo Biology 30:566–569.

Moss, Andrew, Eric Jensen, and Markus Gusset. “Evaluating the Contribution of Zoos and Aquariums to Aichi Biodiversity Target 1.” Conservation Biology (2014).

 Patrick, P. G., C. E. Matthews, D. F. Ayers, and S. D. Tunnicliffe. 2007. Conservation and education: prominent themes in zoo mission statements. Journal of Environmental Education 38:53–60.

Shark Conservation in the Galapagos Islands

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By Daniela Escontrela, RJD Intern

The Galapagos Islands are a popular tourist destination for many people around the world. The pristine environment combined with the vast amounts of life and different species make many people come to the Galapagos every year. However, one of the most important species people come to watch are the scalloped hammerheads and the whale sharks, along with other sharks.

Living on the islands for over two months I can say I have seen most of the iconic animals that the Galapagos are known for. However, one of the best experiences I’ve had is snorkeling and diving with the sharks here. On a snorkel trip to Punta Morena, we were riding back to Puerto Villamil after a long day of snorkeling. All of a sudden, our boat slowed down and veered off to the right. It took me a second to realize why we were going in that direction, and then I saw it. A huge dorsal and caudal fin were sticking out of the water. Being marine biologists, everyone’s first instinct was to jump in the water with this massive creature. However, our boat captain and first mate were wary about this. They kept saying it was a “Tiburon gato” which we gathered was a tiger shark. However, we were positive it was a whale shark as the dorsal fin had the characteristic white spots of a whale shark. After much debate about what it was, the boat captain rode over closer to the shark and in that moment the shark swam right under our boat, and that’s when we were one hundred percent sure that it was a whale shark. The boat captain and first mate were still very skeptical, but regardless we all quickly suited up and jumped in the water to swim with this huge, majestic creature. We swam with it for at least ten minutes as it circled the boat several times. My favorite part was its gorgeous white spots that were running down its body. But as quickly as this adventure began, it then ended as the whale shark dove deep into the abyss. It was interesting, the men working on this boat run snorkel trips almost on a daily basis and have definitely seen a whale shark before, but had never jumped into the water with one.

Figure 1 Shark Paper

An image of me swimming along the whale shark spotted on our way back from a snorkeling trip to Punta Morena. Photo credits to Emily Rose Nelson.

Another incredible experience with sharks was when we were diving in San Cristobal at Kicker Rock (Leon Dormido). The dive began with more sharks than I had ever seen in one dive, small blacktips and Galapagos sharks casually swam by, eyeing us with caution. Towards the end of the dive I was filming two Galapagos sharks that were directly below me when I heard a clinking noise. I looked up, expecting to see another small Galapagos or blactip shark, but what I saw was something I was not expecting. A school of at least ten scalloped hammerheads swimming towards me, one of them coming within five feet of me. They were magnificent, something I had wanted to see my whole life. There slender bodies, big dorsal fins and beautiful cephalofoil were enthralling. They surrounded us for a couple of minutes, some swimming under me, some above me. I didn’t know where to look, they were too beautiful. But they soon swam away and I was out of air from all the excitement.

Figure 2 Shark Paper

An image taken of one of the scalloped hammerheads spotted on a dive at San Cristobal as it swam away from us. Photo taken by me.

I have always been a strong advocate of shark conservation. Back in the states, I am part of the RJ Dunlap program which focuses on shark research and conservation. However, this trip gave me an insight into the shark finning problem that I had never had before. Besides being able to see these majestic creatures underwater, I have also lived with a host family the past two months where my host dad used to be a shark fisherman here in the Galapagos. It was interesting to hear his story, he had been a pepino diver, and when the pepino fishery was banned, he switched to shark finning. He says he didn’t have an alternative, he had to feed his family and the shark fishing brought in good money for him and his family to survive. Eventually, shark fishing was also banned in the Galapagos and he had to find another job. Luckily, he was able to find a job with the government. However, he tells me he would like shark fishing to continue. This time not because of the money, but because a lot of the locals are terrified of the sharks. He himself is scared of sharks, every time I tell him about my day’s stories involving sharks, he cringes and tells me to be careful.

It’s interesting, on one hand I love sharks and would love for the massive killing of sharks to end completely. However, then there’s the people that rely on these jobs to support their family; this is something I had never fully considered before. You can’t ask someone to stop their job when it’s the only source of income they have and the only way they can get through life. It made me realize that banning shark finning all together is unrealistic. However, other things can be done to reduce the number of sharks that are killed every year. We need to set up a comprehensive education program to teach locals of these small fishing communities about sharks. From talking to many locals and hearing their stories, I have come to realize that a lot of them don’t have much education when it comes to things about the natural world, especially sharks. People need to be educated about sharks, the threats they face and how catastrophic it could be to lose sharks. They need to learn that taking out sharks from the environment could cause environmental impacts, such as throwing the food web off balance. In addition, removing sharks from the environment could cause ecotourism to cease, causing them to lose a crucial part of their income.

In addition, we can’t just ask shark fishermen to stop fishing without giving them alternatives, especially when this is their only source of income. When the park banned shark finning and pepino fishing, they started to set up a lot of road blocks so the fishermen couldn’t use their boats for tourism and ferrying people between islands. The park needs to help those fishermen displaced by the ban to find new jobs, this way it will be less likely that the fishermen will go back to illegally fishing for sharks.

There also needs to be more enforcement against illegal fishing. The park currently only has one patrol boat for the island of Isabela. It’s not only enforcement to prevent local fishermen from fishing sharks. They also need to have more stringent penalties for foreign vessels that come into the Galapagos Marine Reserve to fish for sharks.

A combination of education, alternative jobs and enforcement could help the Galapagos in their conservation effort for sharks. It is imperative that these issues be faced because if the Galapagos Islands were to lose sharks, the rest of the marine reserve could be severely affected. One of the major things that attracted me to the Galapagos was the idea that I would be able to see iconic species like the whale shark and the scalloped hammerhead. Luckily, I had that experience along with the chance to meet people that once depended on these species; future generations should get the chance I had of seeing all these incredible animals and sights.

Bioactive Compounds Derived from Marine Algal Species

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By Kyra Hartog, RJD Intern

1. Introduction

Marine algal species produce a variety of compounds that are ultimately beneficial to human health. These compounds are often produced as secondary metabolites [1], meaning they are not essential to the algal species’ survival but benefit the organism in some way. These compounds include, but are not limited to, polyunsaturated fatty acids and carotenoids, as well as compounds with antibiotic and antifungal activity. Those compounds with antibiotic and antifungal activity are being investigated for use as components in anti-fouling paints for maritime industries around the world [1]. Polyunsaturated fatty acids are being studied in relation to their benefits to human health including their potential anticancer activity [2] and their potential for treatment of the symptoms of cystic fibrosis [3]. Carotenoids also have great potential for benefits to human health including treatment of degenerative diseases like macular degeneration and the development of cataracts [4, 5]. Both polyunsaturated fatty acids and carotenoids can be found in algal species, which may provide a less expensive, more efficient mode of production for these compounds [6, 7]. Various algal species are also being studied as bases for biofuels that are more sustainable than current terrestrial options including oil palms, corn, and sugar cane [8].

Though marine products appear to have limited historical use as herbal remedies and medicinal products, a few instances have been reported in the case of marine algal species. Algal metabolites have been studied and developed further as technology to extract and bioassay these metabolites has developed. Marine algae are defined as eukaryotic macroalgae and microalgae for the purpose of this review. Prokaryotic “blue-green algae” (Cyanobacteria) are beyond the scope of this review.

2. Historical use of algae as herbal remedies and supplements

Of the many plant-based herbal remedies used throughout history, only a few have been derived from algal species. Inuit tribes in Nunavut, Canada used parts of a brown algae Laminaria solidungula as a general health supplement [9]. Members of the Rhodophyta division, Chondrus crispus and Mastocarpus stellatus, were used in Irish folk medicine as part of a beverage popular for treating colds, sore throats, and chest infections, including Tuberculosis [10]. They were also boiled in milk or water as remedies for burns and kidney issues [10]. Juice from another red algae, Porphyra umbilicalis, was used as a cancer remedy, particularly breast cancer. It was also used in the Aran Islands as a remedy for indigestion in people and constipation relief in cows [10].

3. Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids (PUFAs)

One typically thinks of marine polyunsaturated fatty acids (ω-3 and ω-6) as coming from oily fish like salmon and anchovies. Marine microalgae also represent a great source of these long chain PUFAs including docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) and eicosapentanoic acid (EPA) which play several important roles in the human body. DHA has been linked to brain development support in infants and may offer other protective functions to the brain later in life [11]. EPA gives rise to anti-inflammatory eicosanoids, which play crucial roles in the immune system, cardiovascular function, and cell communication in general [12].

3.1. PUFAs and Cancer

Marine derived PUFAs have three potential avenues for use in relation to cancer treatment: as an adjuvant for chemotherapy treatment, as compounds with direct anti-cancer effects, or as supplements to ameliorate the secondary effects of radiation and chemotherapy treatments [2]. The direct anti-cancer effects are specifically against tumors through inhibition of angiogenesis and metastasis [13]. These PUFAs were originally thought to have anti-cancer activity due to the low incidences of cancer reported in areas like Japan and the Mediterranean, where n-3 and n-6 levels are high in the diet [14]. The anti-inflammatory nature of the eicosanoids form from the metabolism of EPA is likely the source of the anti-cancer effects seen with these PUFAs. The eicosanoids reduce damage caused by oxidative stress and inhibit the COX-2 inflammatory pathway [2]. EPA and DHA have also been shown to protect tissues that are not the targets of chemotherapy treatment and increase tumor sensitivity to certain cancer treatments [13]. EPA was also shown to increase muscle mass in patients with wasting syndrome, or cachexia, associated with chemotherapy [15]. Though the correlation between increased muscle and body mass and PUFA supplementation may not have been significant in each and every study conducted, overall quality of life was certainly improved in all patients who received supplements [2].

3.2. Algal DHA and Treatment of Cystic Fibrosis Symptoms

Cystic fibrosis is a genetic disease in which mucous membranes, namely in the lung and intestines, do not function properly, causing mucous build-up. Patients with this disease have been found to have lower than normal levels of DHA and arachidonic acid (ARA) in their mucous membrane tissues as well as the blood [3]. This may be due to incomplete digestion of PUFAs as algal DHA supplements appear to be efficiently absorbed by patients with the disease [16]. Lung disease associated with CF is very inflammatory (high levels of ARA) so an increase in DHA derived anti-inflammatory compounds may lead to improvements in lung function by decreasing the ratio between ARA and DHA [3]. Algal DHA is beneficial to CF patients because it manifests fewer gastrointestinal side effects and is more compliant than similar doses of fish oil derived DHA. The doses of algal DHA can also be delivered without increasing pancreatic enzymes doses as well [3]. Algal DHA was found to deliver to red blood cells and plasma at an equal level to fish oils from cooked salmon [11].

3.3. Production of Algal PUFAs

Marine microalgae are a very good source of various PUFAs including EPA, DHA, ARA, and γ-linolenic acid. Certain species and algal strains can be selected for the type and quantities of the PUFAs they produce by manipulating the conditions in which the algae are cultured [6]. Ward and Singh [18] outlined the various species and the compounds they produce in their review of alternate sources of omega 3/6 oils: microalgae of the genera Phaeodatylum and Monodus are good sources of EPA; Schizotrychium species are stable sources of DHA for use in aquaculture, poultry and livestock feeds [19]. One of the problems with algal EPA production is that those species that accumulate EPA in the most available form, triglycerides, are obligate phototrophs, which require expensive photobioreactors for growth [19]. This may be remedied by genetic engineering technology that allows phototrophic species to be converted to heterotrophic species that require much less expensive fermenters for growth and are not hampered by the need for sunlight [18]. Heterotrophic cells can also grow in much higher cell densities compared to phototrophic bacteria because they don’t need sunlight for growth [18].

 

Photobioreactor PBR 4000 G IGV Biotech

A photbioreactor set-up for the cultivation of microalgae
Image source: Wikimedia Commons

 

4. Antibiotic and Antifouling Activity

A study of extracts from Puerto Rican seaweed species showed 64% of the compounds assayed had some level of antibiotic activity [20]. These levels ranged from activity against a single species to activity against the entire range of bacterial species tested. This activity can be contributed to a variety of compounds with the most highly active being brominated compounds in Asparagopsis taxiformis solutions. Though the majority of species tested for antibiotic activity exhibited inhibition against only 1 or 2 microorganisms, 61% of the algae were active against the Gram-positive bacteria Bacilus subtiles and Staphylococcus aureus. Antibiotic activity was evenly distributed against the species in the divisions Rhodophyta, Chlorophyta, and Phaeophyta [20].

Secondary metabolites from marine algae also have activity against bacteria, other algae, fungi, protozoans, and macro species like barnacle larvae. These activities may contribute to algal metabolites making a good source for anti-fouling compounds as all the groups listed above participate in the formation of biofilms on maritime industry properties [1]. Two compounds from the red algae Laurencia rigida, elatol and deschlorelatol, were found to have strong activity against settlement of invertebrate larvae like that of barnacles and oysters [21]. A lactone compound from the brown algae Lobophora variegata, known as lobophorolide, has strong promise as an anti-fungal agent that is environmentally friendly for use in anti-fouling paints [21]. Compounds must meet the standards of the EC Biocide Directive for safety of registered toxins if they are to be used in commercial anti-fouling paints. Isolation of these compounds is very expensive but the solution may lie in genetic engineering. It allows for a safe supply and the potential for development of new compounds to remedy the ever-present problem of biofouling in the maritime industry [1].

5. Carotenoids

Carotenoids are pigment compounds that generally give a yellow, orange, or red color. They are synthesized by plants and algae and may play a role in photosynthesis. These compounds act as antioxidants, reducing stress from oxidative damage. Their bioactivity lies in their physiochemical properties, which depend on the structure of the molecule. Carotenoids also contribute to algae’s nutritive value in feed for aquaculture and animal farming. These values have made algae a potential nutraceutical for human use [7].  Some microalgae of the division Chlorphyta accumulate carotenoids as part of their biomass, including Dunaliella and Haematococcus species [22]. Dunaliella salina is a particularly good natural source of β-carotene, which has been shown to reduce the risk of cancer and degenerative diseases in humans [4, 23].  D. salina is currently being grown for production in open ponds [4, 6]. Haematococcus pluvialisis is one of the richest natural sources of astaxanthin and can be cultivated at a large scale for production of the compound [23]. Lutein is one of the most important carotenoids in foods and for humans. It is used as an additive in aquaculture and poultry operations and may be effective against a variety of disease including cataracts, macular degeneration, and early stages of atherosclerosis [5, 7].  Strains of the green microalga Muriellopsis are the most promising source for algal lutein accumulation and production systems are being developed [7].

Good candidates for algal production of carotenoids will have the same properties as those for production of PUFAs: high cell densities, efficient growth with minimal light, high percentage of desired compounds per cell. Genetic engineering is also an option for carotenoid production but no significant improvements in manipulation of eukaryotic microalgae has been seen so far. Further research and growth studies are required to realize marine algae’s potential for large-scale production [7].

 

D. Salina

[D. Salina.jpg] Natural salt ponds containing Dunaliella salina. The red color is due to their high levels of β-carotene.

6. Biofuels

Most biofuels on the market today are derived from terrestrial sources like oil palms and corn. These biofuels are disadvantageous in that they put a strain on food markets, contribute to water shortages by taking water away from other operations, and further the already rampant destruction of rainforests for resources. Microalgae offer a more economical and environmentally friendly option for the production of biofuels. They have several characteristics that make them more viable biofuel source compared to terrestrial options: they can produce oils year round, they grow in aqueous media and need less water, they can be cultivated on otherwise agriculturally unusable land, and they have a high oil content based on dry mass (20-50%). They may also be able to remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and their nitrogen waste may be used as fertilizer [8]. Oil yields may be increased through manipulation of algal growth conditions including temperature, pH, light, carbon dioxide levels, and harvesting methods [6]. Different strains will have the highest oil yield, the highest carbon dioxide fixation rate, the most efficient growth cycle, etc. so strains must be selected for a balance of these traits to create the best overall strains for biofuel production [8].  Once the various strains are produced and a biomass is obtained, the mass must be converted, either thermochemically or biochemically into the usable products for biofuels. There are a variety of conversion methods depending on the starting product and the desired end product [24]. Microalgal production methods are still relatively expensive so further research and engineering are needed in order to choose strains that will be the most effective for biofuel production. The environmentally friendly nature of algae-based fuels is perhaps the most attractive aspect of their use as current options such as palm oil require clear-cutting of rainforests, killing thousands of endangered animals.

7. Conclusions        

Microalgae are a vast, largely untapped resource for a variety of natural products. These products may be used for everything from human health supplements to animal feeds to biofuels. Some of the most valuable compounds derived from marine algae are the polyunsaturated fatty acids, carotenoids, antibiotic compounds, antifungal compounds, antifouling compounds, and oils for biofuels. These compounds may come from macroalgae and microalgae of various divisions including Chlorphyta, Rhodophyta, and Phaeophyta. Though beyond the scope of this review, prokaryotic Cyanobacteria also produce the already listed valuable compounds in addition to some others including neurotoxins.

Further examination of already studied marine algal species and their relatives is necessary for marine algae to truly become one of the great, well-known marine resources. Luckily, they are abundant and offer very little chance for over-exploitation. Their potential for production in an aquaculture setting is also a huge benefit in addition to their valuable secondary actions and products including carbon dioxide fixation and nitrogen waste production for fertilizer. When production becomes more economically feasible and more efficient, marine algae may represent the biggest breakthrough in marine natural product development for medicine and other products.

 

References

1. Bhadury, Punyasloke, and Phillip C Wright. “Exploitation of Marine Algae: Biogenic Compounds for Potential Antifouling Applications.” Planta 219.4 (2004): 561–78.

2. Vaughan, V C, M-R Hassing, and P a Lewandowski. “Marine Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids and Cancer Therapy.” British Journal of Cancer 108.3 (2013): 486–92.

3. Lloyd-Still, John D et al. “Bioavailability and Safety of a High Dose of Docosahexaenoic Acid Triacylglycerol of Algal Origin in Cystic Fibrosis Patients: A Randomized, Controlled Study.” Nutrition (Burbank, Los Angeles County, Calif.) 22.1 (2006): 36–46.

4. Ben-Amotz, A. “Production of-carotene from Dunaliella.” Chemicals from microalgae (1999): 196-204.

 

5. Krinsky, Norman I., and Elizabeth J. Johnson. “Carotenoid actions and their relation to health and disease.” Molecular aspects of medicine 26.6 (2005): 459-516.

6. Borowitzka, Michael A. “Microalgae as Sources of Pharmaceuticals and Other Biologically Active Compounds.” Journal of Applied Phycology 7 (1994): 3–15.

7. Del Campo, José a, Mercedes García-González, and Miguel G Guerrero. “Outdoor Cultivation of Microalgae for Carotenoid Production: Current State and Perspectives.” Applied microbiology and biotechnology 74.6 (2007): 1163–74.

8. Brennan, Liam, and Philip Owende. “Biofuels from microalgae—A Review of Technologies for Production, Processing, and Extractions of Biofuels and Co-Products.” Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 14.2 (2010): 557–577.

9. Black, Paleah L., John T. Arnason, and Alain Cuerrier. “Medicinal Plants Used by the Inuit of Qikiqtaaluk (Baffin Island, Nunavut)This Paper Was Submitted for the Special Issue on Ethnobotany, Inspired by the Ethnobotany Symposium Organized by Alain Cuerrier, Montréal Botanical Garden, and Held in Montréal at .” Botany 86.2 (2008): 157–163.

10. Dias, Daniel a., Sylvia Urban, and Ute Roessner. “A Historical Overview of Natural Products in Drug Discovery.” Metabolites 2.4 (2012): 303–336.

11. Arterburn, Linda M et al. “Algal-Oil Capsules and Cooked Salmon: Nutritionally Equivalent Sources of Docosahexaenoic Acid.” Journal of the American Dietetic Association 108.7 (2008): 1204–9.

12. Tapiero, H et al. “Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids (PUFA) and Eicosanoids in Human Health and Pathologies.” Biomedicine & pharmacotherapy = Biomédecine & pharmacothérapie 56.5 (2002): 215–22.

13. Baracos, Vickie E., Vera C. Mazurak, and David WL Ma. “n-3 Polyunsaturated fatty acids throughout the cancer trajectory: influence on disease incidence, progression, response to therapy and cancer-associated cachexia.” Nutrition research reviews 17.02 (2004): 177-192.

 

14. Gerber, Mariette. “Omega-3 fatty acids and cancers: a systematic update review of epidemiological studies.” British Journal of Nutrition 107.S2 (2012): S228-S239.

 

15. Weed, Harrison G., et al. “Lean body mass gain in patients with head and neck squamous cell cancer treated perioperatively with a protein‐and energy‐dense nutritional supplement containing eicosapentaenoic acid.” Head & neck 33.7 (2011): 1027-1033.

16. Freedman, Steven D., et al. “Association of cystic fibrosis with abnormalities in fatty acid metabolism.” New England Journal of Medicine 350.6 (2004): 560-569.

17. Ward, Owen P, and Ajay Singh. “Omega-3/6 Fatty Acids: Alternative Sources of Production.” Process Biochemistry 40 (2005): 3627–3652.

18. Apt, Kirk E., and Paul W. Behrens. “Commercial developments in microalgal biotechnology.” Journal of Phycology 35.2 (1999): 215-226.

19. Ballantine, David L. et al. “Antibiotic Activity of Lipid-Soluble Extracts from Caribbean Marine Algae.” Hydrobiologia 151-152.1 (1987): 463–469.

20. Falch, B. S., et al. “Antibacterial and cytotoxic compounds from the blue-green alga Fischerella ambigua.” Planta Medica 58 (1992).

21. Kubanek, Julia, et al. “Seaweed resistance to microbial attack: a targeted chemical defense against marine fungi.” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 100.12 (2003): 6916-6921.

22. Ben-Amotz, Ami, and Mordhay Avron. “The biotechnology of cultivating the halotolerant alga Dunaliella.” Trends in Biotechnology 8 (1990): 121-126.

23. Guerin, Martin, Mark E. Huntley, and Miguel Olaizola. “Haematococcus astaxanthin: applications for human health and nutrition.”TRENDS in Biotechnology 21.5 (2003): 210-216.

24. McKendry, Peter. “Energy production from biomass (part 1): overview of biomass.” Bioresource technology 83.1 (2002): 37-46.

A True Environmental Success Story

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By Patrick Goebel, RJD Intern

The amount of derelict fishing gear lost by commercial and recreational fishing is astonishing. Derelict fishing gear includes nets, lines, crab/lobster and shrimp traps/pots, and other recreational or commercial harvest equipment that has been accidentally lost or intentionally discarded in the marine environment. In the report, A Rising Tide of Ocean Debris, volunteers collected 36,910 fishing lines, 11,059 fishing lures/light sticks, 5,539 fishing nets, and 5,285 crab/lobster traps in the United States alone in 2012.

Derelict fishing gear has the potential to continue fishing (entangling and killing marine life). This uncontrolled process is known as ghost fishing. The time and extent it fishes for depends on the type of fishing gear. The time frame, however, is getting longer and longer as highly durable fishing gear made of long-lasting synthetic material is being used. Since this gear continues to fish, there are large financial losses to the fishing industry. Ghost fishing of some commercial stocks has been estimated to catch amounts equal to 5%-30% of the annual landing levels (Laist 1995). In 2013, Puget Sound dungeness crab harvests totaled 9 million pounds. This would have resulted in 2,700,000 pounds of crab lost last year. However, that number is most likely an over estimate because of The Northwest Straits Derelict Fishing Gear Removal Program.

Table 1.

Species found in derelict fishing gear in Puget Sound (Gilardi et al 2010).

In 2002, the Washington State Legislature passed SB 6313, establishing the Derelict Fishing gear removal program in Puget Sound.  Over the years, this program has become a true success story. The Northwest Straits Initiative (NWSI) working in cooperation with the Washington Department of Fish and Wildlife (WDFW) and the Washington Department of Natural Resources (WDNR) has developed a comprehensive derelict fishing gear removal program for Washington State (A Cost-Benefit Analysis of Derelict Fishing Gear Removal In Puget Sound, Washington). Since its creation, this program has removed 4,605 derelict fishing nets and 3,173 crab pots and 47 shrimp pots, within a depth of 105ft (~32m), from Puget Sound.

There are several reason why this program has become a true success story. The first is the process in which it was created. The legislation called for the development of a database, protocols for removal and disposal, and an evaluation of methods to reduce further losses.  The first step in this process was removing any penalties associated with the reporting of lost gear. This allows gear to be removed quickly. This was so important to the program that on March 29, 2012 Gregoire signed into law Senate Bill 5561, making it mandatory for commercial fisherman to report lost nets to the Washington State Department of Fish and Wildlife within 24 hours of loss (derelictgear.org).

Derelict Fishing gear being removed from the ocean

Derelict fishing gear being removed from the ocean.

Locating derelict fishing gear is either done through fisherman and citizen reports or directed surveys.  The surveys performed by this commission take place in areas of high commercial fishing.  The program uses a high-resolution side-scan sonar survey technique, which has had a profound effect on locating derelict fishing nets and traps. At the moment removal of derelict fishing gear occurs less than 105ft deep.

The program is now in the home stretch of clearing all nets within 105ft. In 2013, the state budgeted $3.5 million dollars to ensure the completion of the project. It is their goal that they will have cleared all derelict fishing gear within 105ft from Puget Sound by 2015. There is nowhere else but up from here… Wrong… the program is heading down. There are unknown number of nets, pots and etc. in deeper water. This program is currently testing deep-water net removal strategies, such as remotely operated vehicles, grapplers, and deep-water divers. By expanding their range and removal techniques, this program can continue to lead and set an example for other programs throughout the world. The success of this program can be used to set an example for the rest of the world.

References

Laist, D.W., 1995. Marine debris entanglement and ghost fishing: A cryptic and significant type of Bycatch? Solving Bycatch. Proceedings of the Solving Bycatch Workshop, Sept. 25-27, Settle, Washington, pp: 1-1.

“A Cost-Benefit Analysis of Derelict Fishing Gear Removal In Puget Sound, Washington.” (2009): n. pag. Print. “Northwest Straits Derelict Fishing Gear Removal Program.”Northwest Straits Derelict Fishing Gear Removal Program. N.p., n.d. Web. 21 Jan. 2013. <http://www.derelictgear.org/>.

Gilardi, K. V., Carlson-Bremer, D., June, J. A., Antonelis, K., Broadhurst, G., & Cowan, T. (2010). Marine species mortality in derelict fishing nets in Puget Sound, WA and the cost/benefits of derelict net removal. Marine pollution bulletin, 60(3), 376-382.

A Rising Tide of Ocean Debris and What We Can Do about It: 2009 Report. Washington, D.C.: International Coastal Cleanup, Ocean Conservancy, 2009. Print.

Five Keys to Effective Marine Protected Areas

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By Lindsay Jennings, RJD Intern

Marine Protected Areas, or MPAs, are areas of the ocean which have a degree of restricted human use for the purpose of protecting its natural resources as well as its ecosystem. Over the past years, the number of MPAs has grown rapidly as conservation efforts push the need for these critical refuges for vulnerable species. But the threat of overfishing still prevails in both coastal areas and in the open ocean, where these MPAs exist.

Picture 1

Salomon Atoll located in the Chagos Archipelago, the world’s largest marine reserve. Photo courtesy of Wikimedia Commons

Unfortunately, too often, MPAs fall short of reaching their full potential due to a host of problems including illegal harvesting, poor management, and the presence of animals which can move freely across the boundaries to be fished outside of the MPA. But Graham Edgar, from the University of Tasmania, along with 24 other researchers took on the first global study of its kind to identify what key factors produce effective MPAs and allow them to reach their full potential.

 The researchers, along with trained volunteer divers surveyed 964 sites across 87 established MPAs identifying the key indicators of healthy MPAs such as species richness (i.e. how many unique fish species are found) and biomass (i.e. the total number of fish in a survey site). They compared these sites with non-MPA sites that are open to fishing. The results highlight the magnitude of how fishing can affect these species and ecosystems.

Picture_2

Distribution of sites surveyed with colored circles representing NOELI features. Photo courtesy of Edgar et al., 2014

Outside of MPAs (areas where fishing is allowed), Edgar et al. found total fish abundance drastically reduced, with upwards of an 80% reduction in large fish, including sharks, groupers, and jacks as compared to fish abundance within the MPAs. Inside these protected MPAs, the number of unique fish species found was 36% greater than that outside the MPAs in fished waters.

The outcome of the MPAs investigated resulted in the researchers concluding that conservation benefits increased greatly with five key features, which they named NOELI features.

  • No take (no fishing or harvesting allowed)
  • Well-enforced
  • Old (>10 years)
  • Large (> 100 km)
  • Isolated

While not every MPA will meet all five criteria, it is crucial that future MPAs implement better design and management and compliance to ensure that these refuges achieve their full ecological potential and conservation value.

MPAs are remarkable conservation tools, if developed and managed properly. The researchers in this study stress that by removing the threat of fishing coupled with sufficient will among stakeholders, managers, and politicians, there can be increased levels of compliance, ultimately allowing the MPAs to reach their full conservation potential and fulfill their role of safeguarding populations of vulnerable species.

The Great Barrier Reef

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By Amanda Wood, RJD Intern

The Great Barrier Reef is undoubtedly one of the most famous coral reef systems in the world. The Marine Protected Area is an important source of revenue for Australia, especially in the Queensland region. In the year 2012 alone, the reef attracted over 1.5 million visitors from across the globe with its captivating beauty and astonishing diversity.

Despite its high visitation numbers, the reef has seen better days. Located just off the northeastern coast of Queensland, the reef is in close proximity to the main agricultural region of Australia. As rivers in the catchment area flow towards the reef, it is exposed to terrestrial runoff throughout the year.

When agriculture consisted of small, local farms, runoff was not a major cause for concern. However, the introduction of chemical pesticides coupled with an increased use of fertilizers shifted traditional farming to large-scale, industrialized agriculture (van Dam et al. 2011). As a result, terrestrial runoff containing sediments, pesticides, and inorganic nutrients are transported to the Great Barrier Reef. Each of these pollutants poses a distinct threat to the reef system, and there is evidence that increasing ocean temperatures could exacerbate their effects(Waterhouse et al. 2012).

Sedimentation occurs when rivers pick up soil particles from the land (e.g. agricultural regions) and carry them to large bodies of water, in this case the Pacific Ocean. The particles are then deposited along the coast, and remain suspended in the water column until conditions allow them to settle. In the Great Barrier Reef, sediments tend to be distributed within 50km of the coastline (Devlin and Brodie 2005). While the particles are floating freely, they cause the water to become cloudy. This cloudiness, known as turbidity, makes it difficult for aquatic plants to absorb enough sunlight to conduct photosynthesis. Seagrasses, algae, and phytoplankton experience a reduced photosynthetic output as a result. As primary producers of the marine food web, these organisms are vital to the survival of a marine ecosystem. Their reduced photosynthetic abilities place stress on the many organisms that rely on them for energy and shelter.

 

SedimentationGBRcoast

The Great Barrier Reef is exposed to terrestrial runoff, as pictured above. Photo by NASA Goddard Space Flight Center, via Wikimedia Commons

Corals experience another risk as many of the corals in the Great Barrier Reef have a symbiotic relationship with tiny algae organisms called zooxanthellae. These symbionts, of the genus Symbiodinium, are housed within the tissues of corals, and give the animals their iconic colors. Through their photosynthetic processes, the algae provide corals with supplemental energy in the form of carbon, which many of the corals seem to use for reproduction and thickening of tissues.  When exposed to high levels of turbidity, the zooxanthellae cannot produce as much photosynthetic carbon, and corals suffer. Some studies have shown that corals subjected to high sedimentation rates reabsorb their eggs in order to compensate for energy deficiencies(Cantin et al. 2007).  When the corals do not reproduce, the future of the reef is at stake.

Chemical fertilizers also present a threat to marine photosynthetic organisms. Though Australia has over 200 chemical pesticides authorized for use, PS-II herbicides may be the greatest cause for concern.  These herbicides inhibit a specific electron receptor protein within chloroplasts, effectively preventing plants from synthesizing carbon. They are heavily used in the sugarcane industry of Australia to abolish weeds. Unfortunately they are also carried to the coast by terrestrial runoff, and have the undesired effect of harming photosynthetic organisms in the marine environment. These marine phototrophs, such as Symbiodinium spp., use the same PS-II protein found in land plants. Some research has shown that when corals are exposed to PS-II herbicides, the zooxanthellae fail to produce enough carbon to maintain a stable symbiotic relationship. The corals then expel the symbionts, a phenomenon known as coral bleaching (van Dam et al. 2011).

 

Bleachedbraincoral

Above, a brain coral experiences bleaching. Photo by Smckenna, via Wikimedia Commons

The final major class of marine pollutants is inorganic nutrients. The nutrients of primary concern are dissolved inorganic nitrogen (DIN) and dissolved inorganic phosphorous (DIP). Nitrogen and phosphorous are naturally occurring, and can be introduced to an ecosystem through upwelling and fixation by marine organisms. However, the use of agricultural fertilizers introduces more nutrients to the natural environment. Fertilizers that are applied to agricultural fields are carried by rivers to the coast, and remain dissolved in the water for extended periods of time. Some research suggests that DIP and DIN can remain present until they reach salinities of at least 25 ppt. This means that the dissolved nutrients can be retained in the marine water column as far as 200 km away from the river that deposited them. As a result, nutrients can be transported great distances, and impact countless ecosystems (Devlin and Brodie 2005).

The impacts of dissolved nutrients can be devastating. When reefs are exposed to DIP and DIN, they often experience macroalgae blooms. As macroalgae compete with corals for resources, nutrients, and substrate, a macroalgae bloom can effectively dominate corals and shift the ecological balance of the reef. The corals themselves are threatened by macroalgae, but the multitudes of animals that live among the corals also suffer from the change (Fabricius 2005).  With this in mind, the growing concentration of fertilizer use in the GBR catchment area is of grave concern to scientists.

In light of the many reports of pollution in the Great Barrier Reef system, the Australian and Queensland governments are makings strides to reduce agricultural runoff. In 2003 Australia released its Reef Quality Protection Plan with the intention of reducing the pollutant load in the GBR catchment area. The plan was revised in 2009 with more concrete goals: reduce concentrations of nitrogen, phosphorous, and pesticides 50% by the year 2013. Also, the plan aimed to reduce the load of suspended sediments 20% by 2020 (Brodie et al. 2012).

Queensland released its own “Reef Protection Package” in 2009. This package created distinct water quality guidelines for the GBR area, and made PS-II herbicides a high priority for management. A new class of environmentally relevant activity was determined for sugarcane and beef grazing, and introduced a requirement for industries to keep records of any application of chemicals and fertilizers. Also, certain high-risk operators must have an accredited environmental risk management plan (ERMP) in order to decrease their negative impact on the GBR system (King et al. 2013).

Though it is still unclear whether or not the new regulation schemes of Australia and Queensland will be effective, there is hope for the Great Barrier Reef. The reef system is not only an integral part of the economic stability of Australia, but also an exquisite example of marine diversity. As such, it has been the focus of scientific research by marine biologists, ecologists, and coral reef scientists for decades. With so much information available about the functioning and health of the reef system, Australian policy makers have a unique opportunity to save their prized resource. With a deeper understanding of reef interactions, government officials can make more informed, and ultimately more effective, decisions in regards to reef management (King et al. 2013).

 

 

References

  1. Brodie JE, Kroon FJ, Schaffelke B, Wolanski EC, Lewis SE, Devlin MJ, Bohnet IC, Bainbridge ZT, Waterhouse J, Davis AM (2012) Terrestrial pollutant runoff to the Great Barrier Reef: An update of issues, priorities and management responses. Mar Pollut Bull 65: 81-100
  2. King J, Alexander G, Brodie J (2013) Regulation of pesticides in Australia: The Great Barrier Reef as a case study for evaluating effectiveness. Agriculture, Ecosyst, and Environ 180: 54–67
  1. Cantin NE, Negri AP, Willis BL (2007) Photoinhibition from chronic herbicide exposure reduces reproductive output of reef-building corals. Mar Ecology Press Series 344: 81–93
  2. Devlin MJ, Brodie J (2005) Terrestrial discharge into the Great Barrier Reef Lagoon: nutrient behavior in coastal waters. Mar Pollut Bull 51: 9-22
  3. Fabricius KE (2005) Effects of terrestrial runoff on the ecology of corals and coral reefs: review and synthesis. Mar Pollut Bull 50:125-146
  1. Van Dam JW, Negri AP, Uthicke S, Mueller JF (2011) Ecological Impacts of Toxic Chemicals. In: Sánchez-Bayo F, van den Brink PJ, Mann RM (eds) Ecological impacts of toxic chemicals. Bentham Books, pp 187-211
  2. Waterhouse J, Brodie J, Lewis S, Mitchell A (2012) Quantifying the sources of pollutants in the Great Barrier Reef catchments and the relative risk to reef ecosystems. Mar Pollut Bull 65: 394-406

 

 

 

Photo attributions:

  1. Sedimentation of GBR: By NASA Goddard Space Flight Center (Flickr: Heavy Sediment along the Queensland Coast) [CC-BY-2.0 (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0)], via Wikimedia Commons
  1. Brain coral:  By Smckenna (Own work) [CC-BY-SA-3.0 (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0) or GFDL (http://www.gnu.org/copyleft/fdl.html)], via Wikimedia Commons

 

Minke Whale Genetics show Adaptations for Diving

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By Jessica Wingar, RJD Intern

Minke whales, Balaenoptera acutorostrata, may not be the largest baleen whale, but they are the most abundant. These whales are about thirty five feet long, 6500kg, and are black with a white stomach (Knox, G.A., 2007). This species of whale is said to be a cosmopolitan species, since they are found in many different climates of the world. Although these whales are abundant, one of their main threats is overexploitation in fisheries. In places, such as the North Pacific, their populations have been fished so much that the International Whaling Commission, the IWC, has them listed as of concern. Overfishing is not the only threat to minke whales. They are also threatened by noise, vessel strikes, and habitat disturbance. (Minke Whale, 2014).

Minke_Whale_(NOAA)

A minke whale.

 

Like many other marine mammals, minke whales have multiple techniques to catch their prey. Minke whales feed on a variety of food. These varieties are crustaceans, plankton, and small schooling fish. In order to eat some of these food types they must dive. This species can dive for up to fifteen minutes at a time. Some of the techniques that they use while diving include landing on their side on top of the prey and ingesting a significant amount of water while feeding. By side lunging they can stun their prey and by gulping a lot of water they can collect a lot of plankton that they can then sift through (Minke Whale, 2014). Once they have the food, minke whales then swallow their food whole (Know, G.A., 2007). Diving for their prey requires a lot of adaptations.

When a whale dives, a lot of changes occur internally. There are three steps that occur when marine mammals hold their breath. The first step is called hypoxia, which is the decrease in oxygen in the whale’s body. The second step is hypercapnia when the body experiences an increase in carbon dioxide. And the final step occurs when there is a build up of lactic acid in the body. All of these stages add up and prevent the animal from suffocating because they tell the body that it needs air. Thus, the whale then returns to the surface to breathe (Richardson, 2013). One of the main behaviors of minke whales is diving, and a recent study on their genetics shows how their genes are adapted for this behavior.

 

Minke whales provide a good specimen for genome sequencing because they are such a widely distributed marine mammal. This study is the first of its kind to complete a high depth genetic analysis of a marine mammal. From the study, the researchers found that there were many whale specific genes. One of the most interesting gene that was found to be expanded in minke whales was the peroxiredoxin (PRDX) family. This family is related with stress resistance. The fact that this gene family is expanded could show that these animals are prone to stress, whether from humans or from diving, and have evolved to have more stress combating genes. Another interesting finding also involved their diving physiology. O-linked N-acetylglucasominylation in many proteins has been found to multiply the response to stress. Stress occurs when a minke whale dives and experiences hypoxia. In minke whales, this gene is expanded three times. This gene is just an example of one of the many genes they found expanded that are related to dealing with hypoxia. In addition, as mentioned above, lactate can build up in the body after prolonged diving. The researchers found that the enzyme, lactate dehydrogenase, which converts pyruvate to lactate to be expanded in animals, such as minke whales. Therefore, many different objects in the minke whale genome have expanded in order to account for the behaviors most exhibited by this animal. This study was very ground breaking and will lead the way for many other marine mammal genomes to be completely sequenced (Yim, H et al, 2014).

Screen Shot 2014-04-12 at 8.56.32 PM

Expanded PRDX gene in minke whales and some other organisms.

 

Knox, G. (2007). Biology of the southern ocean. (2nd ed.). Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press.

Minke whale. (2014, January 09). Retrieved from http://www.nmfs.noaa.gov/pr/species/mammals/cetaceans/minkewhale.htm

Richardson, Jill. “Anatomy and Physiology Part II.” MSC 350. University of Miami, Coral Gables. Mar. 2013. Lecture.

Yim, H, Cho, Y.S., Guang, X, Kang, S.G., Jeong, J, Cha, s, Oh, H, Lee, J, Yang, E.C., Kwon, K. K., Kim, Y.J., Kim, T.W., Kim, W, Jeon, J.H., Kim, S, Choi, D.H., Jho, S, Kim, H, Ko, J, Kim, H, Shin, Y, Jung, H, Zheng, Y, Wang, Z, Chen, Y, Chen, M, Jiang, A, Li, E, Zhang, S, Hou, H, Kim, T.H., Yu, L, Liu, S, Ahn, K, Cooper, J, Park, S, Hong, C.P., Jin, W, Kim, H, Park, C, Lee, K, Chun, S, Morin, P.A., O’Brien, S.J., Lee, H, Kimura, J, Moon, D.Y., Manica, A, Edwards, J, Kim, B.C., Kim, S, Wang, J, Bhak, J, Lee, H.S. and Lee, J. 2014. Minke whale genome and aquatic adaptation in cetaceans. Nature Genetics, 46 (1): 88-94.

 

 

Climate Change and Corals: Is it too late?

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By Jacob Jerome, RJD Graduate Student and Intern

There have been numerous studies that focus on the alterations that climate change can have on the marine environment and how those alterations affect corals. In the marine science field coral bleaching and the disappearance of coral reefs is widely discussed. One of the primary debates centers around whether or not it is too late to save coral reefs. But is this doom and gloom viewpoint how we should be looking at this situation? Many scientists argue that there is still hope for coral reefs.

It is important to first understand the threats that climate change pose to corals. There are two main threats: a rise in ocean temperatures and a lowering of the ocean’s pH, a process known as ocean acidification.

Higher temperatures stress corals and cause them to lose their symbiotic algae, or zooxanthellae (NOAA,2011). These symbiotic algae are what give corals their color and without them the corals turn white, an event known as coral bleaching. This bleaching can have several negative impacts on the coral polyps. Corals and their symbiotic algae have what is called a mutualistic symbiotic relationship; this is a relationship where both species benefit from interacting with one another. Corals provide their symbiotic algae with a protected environment and compounds they need for photosynthesis. The symbiotic algae, in return, provide corals with the products of photosynthesis, a suite of compounds that provide food for the corals and aid in the production of calcium carbonate. Although still alive, by losing their symbiotic algae, corals experience increased stress and are more prone to disease (NOAA, 2011).

OLYMPUS DIGITAL CAMERA

A clear depiction of coral bleaching (Joe Bartoszek 2010/Marine Photobank)

Ocean acidification occurs due to the overwhelming amount of carbon dioxide that is absorbed into the ocean from the Earth’s atmosphere. When carbon dioxide is absorbed into the water, the pH of the water decreases and the water becomes more acidic. Low pH waters limit the rate at which corals can produce calcium carbonate and also increase the rate at which calcium carbonate dissolves (Andersson et al., 2014). Corals use calcium carbonate to build their hard exoskeleton. If corals are not able to produce calcium carbonate quicker than the rate at which it dissolves, they cannot grow.

Knowing these threats, many assume that corals have little hope for surviving through the end of this century. According to the Status of Coral Reefs of the World: 2008, 19 percent of the world’s coral reefs are gone or cannot recover, 15 percent are seriously threatened, and 20 percent are under the threat of loss within the next 20 to 40 years. So, is it too late for corals? Are these threats too great for us to effectively manage them? New scientific research indicates that not all corals are quite ready to give up.

Figure 2

A table summarizing the status of the world’s coral reefs in 2008 (Wilkinson, C. 2008)

Just last year, Australian scientists discovered that coral animals alone are able to produce dimethylsulphoniopropionate (DMSP), a sulphur-based molecule with properties that can provide protection on a cellular level to corals in times of heat stress (Raina et al., 2013). This was the first time that an animal had been discovered to produce DMSP. They also found that corals increased their production of DMSP when subjected to higher water temperatures (Raina et al., 2013). This new information illustrates that corals, even without their symbiotic algae, can “fight” against temperature shifts. While this does not mean that corals can entirely defend themselves against rising temperatures, it does indicate an ability to adapt, to an extent, to these changes.

In addition, a study in the Cayman Islands revealed that a coral reef system that suffered a 40 percent reduction in corals due to bleaching and diseases was able to recover seven years later (Manfrino et al., 2013). The corals in the Cayman Islands are known to be healthy and are afforded some protection from fishing and anchoring. This protection definitely aided in their recovery along with their isolation, a small human population, and a generally healthy ecology (Manfrino et al., 2013). Nonetheless, the Cayman Islands can serve as an example of what can happen when reef management is taken seriously.

In Palau, something remarkable has been discovered. By taking water samples from 9 different locations that stretched from open ocean, across a barrier reef, and into a lagoon and bays, scientists discovered that the sea water became increasingly acidic as they moved toward land (Shamberger et al., 2014). What was even more surprising was that the level of acidity was as high as scientists had predicted for the open ocean by the end of this century. Even so, healthy and diverse coral reefs were found in these areas. In fact, the corals appeared healthier in the more acidic areas than they did in the less acidic areas (Shamberger et al., 2014). While these results are incredible, caution should be taken when interpreting them. The environment surrounding the corals of Palau might create a “perfect storm” for environmental conditions that allow the corals to survive in the acidic waters. Even so, this area has been functioning the same way for thousands of years and may have unintentionally modified the corals in that area genetically. If this is the case, those corals can essentially be put in other acidic environments and survive. This discovery could have huge implications for the survival of corals.

It is important that we do not lose sight of the fact that these new discoveries do not mean that corals are safe under ocean conditions that have resulted from climate change. It does mean, however, that there is still hope for some corals. Climate change is difficult to prevent and changing human habits can be even harder. But if we can release the myriad of other stresses that are put on corals and think about our carbon footprint, corals just might stand a chance for their beauty to be enjoyed for generations to come.

 

References

Andersson, A. J., Yeakel, K. L., Bates, N. R., de Putron, S. J. (2014). “Partial offsets in ocean acidification from changing coral reef biogeochemistry.” Nature Climate Change, 4(1): 56–61.

“Coral Bleaching And Ocean Acidification Are Two Climate-Related Impacts to Coral Reefs.” How Is Climate Change Affecting Coral Reefs? Ed. National Ocean Service. NOAA, 8 Dec. 2011. Web. 10 Mar. 2014. <http://floridakeys.noaa.gov/corals/climatethreat.html>.

Manfrino, C., Jacoby, C.A., Camp, E., Frazer, T.K. (2013). “A Positive Trajectory for Corals at Little Cayman Island.” PLoS ONE, 8(10): e75432.

Raina, J.B., Tapiolas, D.M., Forêt, S., Lutz, A., Abrego, D., Ceh, J., Seneca, F.O., Clode, P.L., Bourne, D.G. Willis, B.L., Motti, C.L. (2013). “DMSP biosynthesis by an animal and its role in coral thermal stress response.” Nature, 502: 677-680.

Shamberger, K. E. F. Cohen, A.L., Golbuu, Y., McCorkle, D.C., Lentz, S.J., Barkley, H.C. (2014). “Diverse coral communities in naturally acidified waters of a Western Pacific Reef.” Geophysical Research Letters, 41: 499–504.

Wilkinson, C. (2008). Status of the Coral Reefs of the World: 2008. Global Coral Reef Monitoring Network and Reef and Rainforest Research Centre, Townsville, Australia, 296p. Reefcheck.org 3/10/2014.

Hawaiian Humpback Whale Conservation

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Hannah Armstrong, RJD Intern

The world’s diverse oceans are essentially interconnected, and, in turn, what effects one ecosystem can ripple around the globe.  With countless threats impacting the oceans and its inhabitants, conservation has been a critical topic of debate among both scientists and citizens.  Research efforts are growing to find the best and most effective way to manage and maintain healthy ecosystems.  Marine Protected Areas, for example, are a means of conservation; they can restore ecosystems and allow them to thrive to their utmost potential.  In addition, by utilizing geographic information systems (GIS) and similar tools, scientists can collect and use data to observe and predict both present and future problems regarding the world’s oceans, and ultimately find solutions toward maintaining healthier, sustainable oceans.

Globally, humpback whale populations were depleted by the commercial whaling industry at the beginning of the 20th century.  In 1973, however, the United States government made it illegal to hunt, harm, or disturb humpback whales (NOAA Fisheries Office of Protected Resources).  When the Endangered Species Act was eventually passed, the humpback whale became listed as endangered.  Additional laws protect humpback whales, such as the Marine Mammal Protection Act, the Endangered Species Act, various state wildlife laws, and the National Marine Sanctuaries Act.  Their protection is also extended as a resource of national significance within the Hawaiian Islands Humpback Whale National Marine Sanctuary.

In 1992, following the 1967 success of the Marine Life Conservation Districts, Congress implemented the Hawaiian Islands Humpback Whale National Marine Sanctuary to protect the whales and their habitat (NOAA National Marine Sanctuaries).  Located within the shallow warm waters surrounding the main Hawaiian Islands and constituting one of the world’s most important humpback whale habitats, the Hawaiian Islands Humpback Whale National Marine Sanctuary [HIHWNMS] is managed by both the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) and the State of Hawaii (NOAA National Marine Sanctuaries).  The Hawaiian Islands Humpback Whale National Marine Sanctuary is crucial not just for protecting and conserving Humpback whale populations, but also for protecting Hawaiian monk seals, spinner dolphins, sea turtles, other species of whales and dolphins, coral reefs, reef fish, invertebrates and sea [and shore] birds.

The sanctuary has experienced success through research, education and, more specifically, through the use of GIS.  Often considered a mapping tool, GIS offers a way to “view, query, interpret, and visualize various sorts of spatial data to reveal geographic relationships, patterns, and trends (NOAA).”  Moreover, “maps, charts, and analytical reports can be derived from the data stored in a GIS as a means of documenting and explaining spatial patterns and relationships to assist in planning and decision-making processes (NOAA).”  As seen in GIS-generated maps, the density of marine life, specifically humpback whales, is significantly higher in and around the sanctuary, compared to the density outside the sanctuary boundary.  Hawaii has already developed an elaborate network of Marine Life Conservation Districts; coupled with GIS programming, the two are useful in evaluating critical habitats and relevant ecosystem processes to establish adequate boundaries for marine protected areas.

HumpbackWhaleDensity (1)

With data courtesy of Joseph R. Mobley, this GIS-generated map depicts the Hawaiian Humpback Whale density in and surrounding the Hawaiian Islands Humpback Whale National Marine Sanctuary (Mobley, Joseph R. “Humpback Whale Surface Sightings and Estimated Surface Density.” NOAA, 14 Jan. 2013)

As is evident in Hawaii, using mapping tools can contribute toward effective means of conservation.  GIS and related software is being used more frequently to map oceanic habitats, as well as things like water quality, species distribution, population, pollution, fishing grounds, and other factors that influence marine life.  Going forward into the future, the selection and establishment of marine protected areas will depend on the connectivity of targeted species, and GIS will contribute to making these decisions.

 

 

References:

“National Marine Protected Areas Center: GIS for Marine Protected Areas.” National Marine Protected Areas Center. NOAA, 28 June 2013.

“National Marine Protected Areas Center: The Hawaii Coastal Use Mapping Project.” National Marine Protected Areas Center. NOAA, 22 Oct. 2013.

“Humpback Whale (Megaptera Novaeangliae).” NOAA Fisheries Office of Protected Resources. NOAA, 5 Sept. 2013. Web. 03 Dec. 2013.

“GIS for Ocean Conservation.” Esri, Dec. 2007.